Self-study
P1
By the time Bentham turned his interest to the subject, late in the eighteenth century, most components of modern evidence law had been assembled. ███
Intro to Topic ·
Modern evidence law
Historical Example ·
Parties to a case cannot testify
E.g., a defendant in a criminal case had no right to testify. This rule has been abandoned.
P2
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Historical Context ·
Exclusionary rules were typical and over-applied
Usually based on rational grounds. But mechanically and hence over-applied.
P3
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Consequence / Problem ·
Obscured truth
As a consequence of exclusionary rules, truth would not emerge from trials.
Bentham's Solution ·
Inclusion is the rule, exclusion is the exception
If relevant, then include. Narrow exceptions made for exclusion. Flips the status quo of evidence law (exclusion rule, inclusion exception) on its head.
P4
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Problem / Critique ·
Some types of evidence are inherently unreliable
For example, interested-party testimony and hearsay evidence.
Solution / Rebuttal ·
Let the jury decide
Problem / Critique ·
Some relevant evidence is more likely to produce false verdict
Example ·
Evidence of defendant's past bank robberies
Sure, it's relevant. But it also prejudices the jury (meaning it makes jury think that being a bank-robber is in his character) and so hurts the jury's ability to decide correctly in this case.
Problem / Critique ·
Bentham's exceptions are inconsistently applied
Bentham concedes that there can be other values more important than admitting relevant evidence. That's why he excludes sacramental confessions. Okay, but that same reason should also apply to exclude other privileged communications.
P5
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Consequence ·
Bentham's principle prevails
Despite the concerns raise, Bentham's idea of admitting evidence by default and excluding evidence only when there are clear reasons for doing so is now the standard.
Passage Style
Critique or debate
Problem-analysis
24.
The author's attitude toward eighteenth-century ███████ ███ ████ ██ █████████ ██
a
sympathetic
We’re looking for a negative attitude toward the lawyers.
b
critical
This best captures the author’s attitude. The author is critical of them because they stood in the way of reform.
c
respectful
We’re looking for a negative attitude toward the lawyers.
d
scornful
This is too negative — the author isn’t contemptuous or disrespectful toward the lawyers.
e
ambivalent
We’re looking for a negative attitude toward the lawyers. Ambivalent means having mixed feelings. There’s no evidence the author has mixed feelings toward the lawyers.