Self-study
A theory cannot properly be regarded as empirical unless there is some conceivable observation that, if the theory were false, would refute it.
Summary
If a theory is empirical → there is a conceivable observation that could refute the the theory if the theory were false
If there is NOT a conceivable observation that could refute the theory if the theory were false → theory is NOT empirical
Find or Complete the Application
The correct answer will either:
Conclude that a theory is NOT empirical, based on premises that establish there is NO conceivable observation that could refute the theory if it were false
OR
Conclude that there IS a conceivable observation that could refute the theory if it were false, based on premises that establish the theory IS empirical
The correct answer CANNOT conclude that the theory IS empirical. And it CANNOT conclude that there is NO conceivable observation that could refute the theory if the theory were false. (If you think we can support these conclusions using the principle, you are confusing sufficient and necessary conditions of the principle.)
24.
The principle above most helps ██ ███████ █████ ███ ██ ███ ██████████
a
Since no one ███ ███████ ██ ███ ██████ ██ ███ █████████ ███ ███ ████ ██████ ██ ███ ██████████ ██████ ██ ███ ██ █████████ ███████
(A) doesn’t establish that there is no conceivable observation that could refute the Big Bang theory if it were false. Although no one was present at the origin of the universe, that doesn’t imply we can’t conceive of an observation that could falsify the theory. Maybe there are certain measurements we could make of various elements in planets or stars that could falsify the Big Bang theory.
b
Since set theory ██ ███ ██ █████████ ███████ █████ ██ ██ ███████████ ███████████ ████ █████ ██████ ███
Unreachable conclusion. (B) concludes that there is NO conceivable observation that could refute a theory. But the principle we’re given only allows us to say that IF there’s no conceivable observation that could refute a theory, then the theory can’t be empirical. It doesn’t allow us to conclude that there’s no conceivable observation that could refute a theory. (If you think it does, you’re confusing sufficient and necessary conditions.)
c
Psychoanalysis is such █ ████████ ██████ ████ ██ ███████████ ███████████ █████ ████ ██ ██ ██ ██████ ██ ██ ██ ███ ██ █████████ ███████
The premise of (C) establishes that psychoanalysis does not have any conceivable theory that could refute it. So, based on the principle, we can conclude that it’s not empirical.
d
There are conceivable ████████████ ████ █████ ██████ ███████ ███████ ██ ███████ ██████ ██ ██ █████████ ███████
Unreachable conclusion. (D) concludes that a theory IS empirical. But the principle establishes a necessary condition for being empirical. That allows us to conclude that if the necessary condition isn’t met, a theory is NOT empirical. It does not allow us to conclude that something IS empirical. (If you think it does, you’re confusing sufficient and necessary conditions.)
e
The theory of ██████████ ████ ██ ████ ██████ ████████ ██████████ ████ █████████ ██ ████████████ ████ █████ ██████ ███ ██ ███ ███ ███ ████ ████████
(E) concludes that a theory is true. But the principle does not allow us to conclude that a theory is true. The theory allows us to conclude that a theory is NOT empirical or that there exists a conceivable observation that could refute a theory.