Self-study
Psychology researchers observed that parents feel emotion while singing to their infants. ███ ███████████ ████████████ ████ ████ ███████ ██████████ ███████ ███ █████ ██ ███ ████████ ██ ████ ████ ██████████ ███ ███████ ████ ████████ █████ ███████ ██ █████ ███████ ███ █████ ███████ ████ ██ ██████ ████████ ████ ████ ██████████ ██ ████ ███ ███ ██████████ ██ ███████ ██ █████████ █████ ██████████ ████ ████ ██████ ███ █████████████ ███ ███ ███ ████████ ███ ██████████ █████ █████ ███ ██ ███████ ██ ███ ███████████ █████ █████████████ ████ ████ ██ █████████ █████████ ██ █████████ ██████ █████ ██████████ ████ ██ ███████ ███████ ██ █████ █████████ ███ ███████████ █████████ ████ █████ ██████████ ███ ████████
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The researchers conclude that they were correct in their hypothesis that the emotion parents feel when singing to their infants noticeably affects how that singing sounds. This is supported by the researchers’ observations that psychologists were usually able to identify by sound whether recordings of parents singing were made with or without their infant present.
Notable Assumptions
The researchers assume that the sound of the recordings was not influenced by factors other than the presence of an infant. The researchers also assume that the psychologists had no other way of knowing in advance which recordings were made with an infant present.
14.
Which one of the following, ██ █████ █████ ████ ██████████ ███ ████████████ ██████████
a
A separate study ██ ███ ████ ███████████ █████ ████ ███████ ████ ████ ███████ ████ ███████ ██ █████ ███ ████████ ████ ████ ███████ ██ █████ █████████
This is irrelevant, since the researchers only claim that parents’ emotion when singing to their children affects the sound of the singing. The relative amount of emotion felt when singing to different audiences doesn’t affect that claim.
b
Some, but not ████ ██ ███ ███████ ██ ███ █████ ████████ ████ █████ ████ ██████████ ████ █████ █████████
This isn’t relevant, because the psychologists were comparing recordings of the same parents singing with and without their children present. Any difference caused by being aware of the recording would affect both samples, so shouldn’t change the result.
c
Parents displayed little ███████ ████ ███████ ████ ██ █████ ██ █████ ████████
The researchers don’t make any claims about emotion displayed by parents when singing in any other case than to their child, only that the emotion felt when parents are singing to their child noticeably affects the sound of their singing.
d
When a person █████ ████████ ████ ███████ ████████ ███████████ █████████████ █████████ ████ ██████ ███ █████ █████ ███ ██████
This strengthens by providing an mechanism to support the hypothesis. If we know how emotion can noticeably affect the sound of singing, it’s more plausible that results are truly due to parents’ emotion and not some other factor.
Causal mechanism
Causal mechanism
Answers that undermine, or help establish, the practical story of how an alleged cause could produce the alleged effect.
e
Most of the ███████ ███ ████████████ ██ ███ █████ ████████ ████ ███ ███████ ████ ████ █████ ███████ ██ █████ ███████ ████████ █████ ████████
The researchers’ hypothesis doesn’t depend on the parents’ beliefs, only whether that is truly the case, so this is irrelevant. If anything, parents’ beliefs could lead them to sing differently, which could even weaken the hypothesis that emotion led to the differences.