Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author hypothesizes that interest among recent North American college/university graduates in choosing art history as a career has declined over the last four years. This is based on the fact that the reported number of applications to North American Ph.D. programs in art history has gone down in each of the last four years.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that there’s no other explanation for the decline in reported applications for admission than a decline in North American college/university graduates’ interest in a career in art history.
A
The number of North American Ph.D. programs in art history that opted to report data about applications for admission has declined in each of the last four years.
This provides a potential alternate explanation for the decline in reported applications. Fewer Ph.D. programs reporting data would naturally lead to a lower number of applications reported.
B
The average age of applicants for admission to North American Ph.D. programs in art history has increased in each of the last four years.
The potential impact of an increase in average age of applicants is unclear. If anything, this might suggest fewer “recent” (and therefore, on average younger) graduates are applying, which is consistent with the author’s reasoning.
C
The number of errors in data about applications for admission to North American Ph.D. programs in art history has increased substantially during the last four years.
This raises the possibility that the data the author relies on has become less reliable. The decline in reported applications may not reflect an actual decline in applications.
D
The number of North American employers willing to hire individuals without a Ph.D. for jobs in art history has increased in each of the last four years.
This raises a potential alternate explanation for the decline in reported applications. Maybe interest in pursuing art history as a career is just as high, but more graduates are being hired directly by employers in the industry rather than pursuing a Ph.D.
E
The percentage of applications for admission received from outside North America by North American Ph.D. programs in art history has declined substantially in the last four years.
This raises a potential alternate explanation for the decline in reported applications. The decline might not be coming from North American graduates, but from people outside North America. Thus, it doesn’t necessarily reflect decline in the interest of North American graduates.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that the collapse of Egypt’s old kingdom was caused by a climate catastrophe rather than social upheaval. This is because ocean sediments imply a drought at the time Egypt’s old kingdom collapsed, and such a catastrophe was responsible for the subsequent social problems.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the collapse of Egypt’s old kingdom should be attributed to the first cause rather than the most direct cause. While social upheaval did indeed lead to the collapse of Egypt’s old kingdom, drought caused social upheaval. The author believes this means drought is really the cause of the old kingdom’s collapse.
A
Historically, most civilizations have succumbed to internal strife rather than external factors.
According to the author, Egypt’s old kingdom succumbed to external factors. We don’t care what happened with most civilizations.
B
The social problems in Egypt’s old kingdom at the time of its collapse were serious enough to have caused the collapse.
The author claims the drought caused the social problems. We need to strengthen the claim that the drought, and not the social problems themselves, is really to blame for Egypt’s old kingdom collapsing.
C
At the time of the collapse of the old kingdom, several isolated but well-established civilizations near Egypt underwent sudden declines.
When Egypt’s old kingdom declined, several other civilizations declined independently. This suggests there was some common factor to all these declines: the drought.
D
Egyptian records recovered from the time of the collapse explicitly refer to the deteriorating conditions of the society.
We already know there were social problems.
E
Shortly after the collapse of the old kingdom, Egypt was thrust into a civil war that lasted most of the next two centuries.
We don’t care what happened after the collapse of the old kingdom. We need to strengthen the claim that drought caused the collapse.
Summary
The author concludes that both consciously and unconsciously inhibiting of displays of emotion causes a sharp rise in heart rate.
What makes the author think this?
Repressors (those who unconsciously inhibit displays of emotion) show sharp increases in heart rate in emotion-provoking situations.
Nonrepressors who consciously inhibit their display of emotion also experience sharp increases in heart rate in emotion-provoking situations.
What makes the author think this?
Repressors (those who unconsciously inhibit displays of emotion) show sharp increases in heart rate in emotion-provoking situations.
Nonrepressors who consciously inhibit their display of emotion also experience sharp increases in heart rate in emotion-provoking situations.
Notable Assumptions
We have correlations between inhibiting emotions and a sharp increase in heart rate among the repressors and nonrepressors. The author assumes the reason for these correlations is that inhibiting emotions causes the heart rate increase.
But are there other explanations? Couldn’t the true cause of the heart rate increase by the emotion-provoking situation itself? The author is assuming that the emotion-provoking situation is not the true cause of the sharp increase in heart rate among both the repressors and nonrepressors.
But are there other explanations? Couldn’t the true cause of the heart rate increase by the emotion-provoking situation itself? The author is assuming that the emotion-provoking situation is not the true cause of the sharp increase in heart rate among both the repressors and nonrepressors.
A
Encountering an emotion-provoking situation is not sufficient to cause nonrepressors’ heart rates to rise sharply.
Necessary, because if it were not true — if an emotion-provoking situation IS enough to cause nonrepressors’ heart rates to rise sharply — then the premise concerning nonrepressors no longer provides support to the conclusion. There would be an alternate explanation available for the nonrepressors situation, weakening the argument. So the author must assume (A).
B
Nonrepressors can inhibit facial and bodily displays of emotion as well as repressors do.
Whether each group repressed equally as well or one was better at inhibiting than the other is irrelevant, because we know that both repressors and nonrepressors inhibited emotion. Also, the argument doesn’t specify “facial and bodily” displays of emotion; there’s no reason to think the author must assume anything about specific displays.
C
Despite their outward calm, repressors normally feel even more excited than do nonrepressors in an emotion-provoking situation.
Not necessary, because even if both groups are equally excited, that doesn’t undermine the author’s reasoning, which is based on the correlation observed between inhibiting emotions and a sharp heart rate increase.
D
People who are ordinarily very emotional can refrain from feeling strong emotions when experimenters ask them to do so.
We don’t know whether any of the nonrepressors were “ordinarily very emotional,” so there’s no reason to think the author must assume that very emotional people can refrain from feeling strong emotions. Also, the nonrepressors were asked to inhibit their display of emotion; that’s different from not feeling emotion.
E
In situations that do not tend to provoke emotions, the average heart rate of repressors is the same as that of nonrepressors.
Not necessary, because even if each group started with different average heart rate, we still know that each group experienced a sharp increase in heart rate. The argument isn’t based on a comparison of the repressors’ heart rate vs. the nonrepressors’ heart rate. It’s based on a comparison, within each group, of their heart rate before inhibiting and their heart rate after inhibiting.
Summarize Argument
The administrator concludes that the university must reduce faculty salaries. Why? Because the university must save money. He suggests two ways it could achieve this: reducing faculty salaries or eliminating faculty positions. The university won’t eliminate faculty positions.
Identify and Describe Flaw
This is the cookie-cutter flaw of creating a false dichotomy. The administrator presents two options for the university reduce its budget—reducing salaries and firing staff. However, he gives no reason to believe that these are the only two options. Perhaps the university could save money by spending less on student dining or facilities maintenance.
Consequently, we can’t conclude that not choosing one of the administrator’s options means that we have to choose the other one.
Consequently, we can’t conclude that not choosing one of the administrator’s options means that we have to choose the other one.
A
presumes, without providing justification, that more money would be saved by reducing faculty salaries than would be saved by eliminating faculty positions
The administrator never compares the savings from reduced salaries vs. layoffs, so this can’t be the flaw.
B
presumes, without providing justification, that the budget cannot be reduced unless faculty positions are eliminated or faculty salaries are reduced
This is the cookie-cutter flaw of creating a false dichotomy. The administrator commits it by treating elimination of faculty positions or reduction of faculty salaries as the only two options, without justification.
C
ignores the possibility that, though budget cuts will be needed, they will not need to be as high as 15 percent
The administrator never suggests that 15 percent of the budget needs to be cut: the 15 percent figure was for the decline in revenue.
D
presumes, without providing justification, that some faculty members will leave their jobs rather than accept a reduced salary
The administrator never presumes anything about faculty members’ decision-making, so this can’t be the flaw.
E
ignores the possibility that the budget could be reduced by eliminating some faculty positions and reducing the remaining faculty members’ salaries
The administrator directly states that no faculty positions will be eliminated, so ignoring this option is not a flaw.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The columnist concludes that Benton is the best bait for anyone who is fishing for trout. Why? Because an independent research firm found it to be the best of the 5 top-selling baits in an experiment. The experiment was conducted by top anglers who fished for speckled trout in a pristine northern stream.
Identify and Describe Flaw
This is the cookie-cutter flaw of making a hasty generalization. The columnist concludes that Benton baits are universally the best for catching trout. But his basis for doing so is an experiment that only measures the five top-selling baits, only tests them in a pristine stream with top anglers, and only attempts to catch speckled trout.
A
The argument overlooks the possibility that some other bait is more successful than any of the five best-selling baits.
The test cited by the columnist only examined the five best-selling baits. A less popular bait could be more effective—which would undermine the conclusion.
B
The argument overlooks the possibility that what works best for expert anglers will not work best for ordinary anglers.
The test cited by the columnist was conducted by expert anglers. If ordinary anglers differ from experts, we can’t be sure the results will apply to them.
C
The argument overlooks the possibility that the relative effectiveness of different baits changes when used in different locations.
The test cited by the columnist only examined a pristine northern stream—results might different in non-pristine, non-northern streams.
D
The argument overlooks the possibility that two best-selling brands of bait may be equally effective.
The columnist does consider this possibility: the test compared the five best-selling brands of bait.
E
The argument overlooks the possibility that baits that work well with a particular variety of fish may not work well with other varieties of that fish.
The test cited by the columnist only examined speckled trout. Bait efficacy might differ for other varieties of trout.
It has been a staple of drama to feature an innocent young protagonist, eager to make a mark on the world, who is stymied by an indifferent or hostile society. Since the playwrights of such works wished the audience to empathize with the protagonist, historians do not regard these plays as serious revelations of what the societies presented in the plays were really like.
"Surprising" Phenomenon
Drama playwrights were motivated to have audiences empathize with their protagonists when those protagonists were obstructed by society. In view of these motivations, why do historians think that such plays are non-serious, unrealistic, or unreliable portrayals of those societies?
Objective
The correct answer will support the historians’ viewpoint. It will offer some reason why a playwright’s desire to garner empathy for her protagonist would lead that playwright to portray society in a way that historians find unreliable.
A
The historians believe that playwrights tend to be more critical of their own societies than of other societies.
How critical a playwright might be of any given society says nothing about whether that playwright portrays society in a reliable way. Because (A) does not address how playwrights portray society or the reliability of those portrayals, it cannot be the right answer.
B
The historians believe that playwrights tend to exaggerate the weaknesses of a society for the sake of dramatic effect.
This explains why historians regard dramas as unreliable portrayals of a society. They believe that drama playwrights exaggerate society’s weaknesses. If society’s weaknesses are overstated, then that portrayal of society is at least somewhat less realistic or reliable.
C
The historians believe that plays tend to provide useful information about the time and society in which they were written.
This doesn’t provide a reason for historians to not regard dramas as serious revelations. If anything, this just magnifies the core question—if historians believe plays provide useful info about society, why are they so skeptical of dramas?
D
The historians believe that plays often contain serious revelations of what the societies presented in those plays were like.
This doesn’t provide a reason for historians to not regard dramas as serious revelations. If anything, this just magnifies the core question—if historians believe plays often contain serious revelations, why are they so skeptical of dramas?
E
The historians believe that only the most popular plays within a society accurately portray that society.
We don’t know how popular the types of plays discussed in the stimulus were, so (E) cannot help explain the historians’ viewpoint on those plays.
Mendez: But news stories, along with popular art, provide a wealth of information about what the people of an era thought and felt.
Speaker 1 Summary
Logan claims that old newspapers are useless to historians. Why are they useless? Because newspapers have only ever focused on minor matters, without paying any attention to larger changes in society. (Logan is also assuming that the only knowledge that’s useful to historians is about those larger changes in society.)
Speaker 2 Summary
Mendez’s argument is designed to support the idea that newspapers are useful to historians, although this is implied rather than stated. To lead to this conclusion, Mendez says that news stories and popular art are a good source of knowledge about people’s thoughts and feelings. (Mendez is assuming that this knowledge is useful to historians.)
Objective
We’re looking for a disagreement. Logan and Mendez disagree about whether historical newspapers are useful to historians.
A
newspapers accurately report the most important changes taking place in a society
Logan disagrees with this, and Mendez never contradicts Logan’s position. If anything, Mendez seems to accept this claim, and instead focuses on other useful knowledge that newspapers can provide.
B
the study of previous eras should include investigations of the conventions of newspaper reporting
Neither speaker talks about what historians should investigate when studying previous eras. All we know is what Logan and Mendez think about newspapers’ usefulness. We can’t assume that that translates into concrete directions for historians to investigate or not.
C
popular art is an important source of information about what the people of previous eras thought and felt
Mendez would agree with this, but Logan never mentions popular art. The only opinions we know from Logan are about newspapers, so we can’t say whether the speakers agree or disagree about art.
D
newspapers ought to focus more on the types of stories they have glossed over in the past
Neither speaker makes any claim about what newspapers should do now or in the future. We can’t know if the speakers’ opinions about newspapers as a historical source have any bearing on their opinions about what modern newspapers should report on.
E
newspaper reports from former eras are useful sources of material for understanding the past
Logan disagrees with this and Mendez agrees, so this is the point of disagreement. Logan states that newspapers are not useful to historians. Mendez, however, brings up a way that newspapers can be useful, supporting the implied conclusion that they are useful.