Self-study
Passage A.
P1
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Intro topic ·
Function of language
One purpose is to influence others' behavior.
P2
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Contrast ·
Animal vocalizations vs. human language
Animal communication is inadvertent, unlike human language. Animals (except chimps) can't attribute mental states to other animals.
Example ·
Communication by one frog
No evidence that the frog attributes knowledge or desire to other frogs.
Additional contrast ·
Animal vocalizations vs. human language
Primates (besides humans) don't communicate in response to thinking that another primate needs info.
Example ·
Macaques and chimps
No evidence they are more likely to communicate about things when their fellow primates are clearly unaware of those things.
Main point ·
Many animal vocalizations aren't as intentional as they seem
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P3
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Scientists' perspective ·
Animal communication isn't intentional, whereas human language is
This is a recap of Passage A's perspective.
P4
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Scientists' perspective ·
Animals can't lie
Lying requires intention to deceive, and it's widely thought that animals don't have conscious intention.
Example ·
Bee's "waggle-dance"
Bees communicate direction of food sources, but one philosopher thinks this is just a reflex; bees don't intend to communicate anything.
P5
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Author's critique ·
Assumption that animals can't intend things might be wrong
Passage Style
14.
Both passages are primarily concerned ████ ██████████ █████ ███ ██ ███ █████████ ██████████
a
Are animals capable ██ ████████████ █████████████ ██ █████ ██ ███████ ████████ ██████
Passage A doesn’t discuss deception, so (A) isn’t a question Passage A is concerned with answering. (”Prevaricate” = to deceive.) Also, deception is merely one kind of intention that someone might have in communicating. The primary purpose of the passages isn’t about deception specifically. It’s about the more general topic of animal intentions when they vocalize.
b
Are the communications ██ ███████ █████████████ ██ █████████ ██████████
This is the best answer. Each passage is focused on exploring this question. Although Passage A doesn’t use the exact words “conscious intention,” Passage A does explore this concept: “Many animal vocalizations whose production initially seems goal-directed are not as purposeful as they first appear.” Passage B explores the question in (B) throughout the second and third paragraphs.
c
What kinds of ███████ ███ ████ ██████ ██ ██████ ██████ ██████████████
Neither passage focuses on identifying the kinds of stimuli most likely to elicit vocalizations. Even if one or both passages might identify some example stimuli, neither passage indicates that those stimuli are the most likely to elicit vocalization, nor do the passages focus on identifying different stimuli.
d
Are the communication ███████ ██ ████████ ████████ █████████████ █████████ ████ █████ ██ ███ █████ ████████
The passages are concerned with the relationship between animal communication and human language. They’re not focused on the relationship between nonhuman primates and other animals.
e
Is there a ██████████ █████████ █████ ███ ███████████ ███████ ██████ █████████████ ███████ ███ █████ █████████
Although the passages are concerned with exploring certain alleged differences between animal communication and human language, the passages are not concerned with the level of scientific agreement about those differences. Passage A, for example, doesn’t attempt to answer whether there is a consensus or lack of consensus.