Subscription pricing
passage 2
P1
By the mid-fourteenth century, professional associations of canon lawyers (legal advocates in Christian ecclesiastical courts, which dealt with cases involving marriage, inheritance, and other issues) had appeared in most of Western Europe, and a body of professional standards had been defined for them. ███
Intro topic ·
Professional associations of canon lawyers in the mid-14th century
These are lawyers in Christian religious courts. They had professional standards and were common in Western Europe.
Puzzling phenomenon ·
The associations didn't have big role in enforcing professional standards
Some even tried to stop efforts to enforce standards (example: Florentine guild).
P2
██ █████ ███████ █████ ████ ██ ██ ███ ████████ ████████████ ███ ███ ██████ ██ ████████████ ████████████ ████████ █████ ███████ ███ ████ █████████ ████████ ███ █████████ ██ ████████████ ███████ █████████████ ██████████████ ██ ██ ████████ ████ ██████████ ████ ███ ███████████ █████████ ██ ████████ ████ ███ █████████ ███ ████ █████████ ████████████ ██████████ ████ ██ ███████████ ████ ████ ███████████ ███████ █████████ ███ ███████████
Two potential hypotheses ·
Lawyers almost never violated standards, or disciplinary mechanisms were inefficient
P3
███ ██████████████ ████ ██ █████ ████ ███ ██████ ██ █████ ████████████ ██ ████ ██████████ ███
Author's perspective ·
Disciplinary mechanisms were probably inefficient
Support 1 ·
English civil courts (non-religious) have much more disciplinary action
Those courts had ethical standards similar to the religious courts. So, disparity in number of disciplinary actions is probably due to religious courts' inefficient enforcement mechanisms. It's unlikely that religious lawyers were simply much more unethical than civil lawyers.
P4
███████ ██████ ███████████ ██████████ ██████████ █████ ███ ███████ ██ █████████ ██ ███████ ██ ██ ███████ █████████ ███ ████████ ███ ████████████ ██ ███ ████████████ ███████ ████ ███
Support 2 ·
Lots of complaints by church authorities about unethical lawyers and inefficient disciplinary system
P5
████ ██████████ ████ ██ ████ ███ █ ███████████ ███████ ███ ████ ██████████ ██████████ ███
Result of complaints (related to support 2) ·
Induced religious lawyers to defend themselves from criticism
Complaints may have encouraged lawyers to form professional associations and to de-prioritize disciplining fellow lawyers.
Passage Style
Phenomenon-hypothesis
Single position
13.
The passage suggests that which ███ ██ ███ █████████ ██ ████ ██████ ██ ████ ████ ████ ██ ████████ ███████
a
Few guilds of ███ ██████████ ███████ ██████ ███ ██████████████ ████████
b
Many medieval guilds █████████ █████████ ████ ███ ███████ ██ █████ ████████
c
Most medieval guilds ██████████ ████ ████████ ███████ █████████ ████ ███ ███ ████████████ ██ █████ ████████
d
Medieval guilds found ██ █████████ ██ ███████ ██████████ █████ █████ ████████
e
The ethical standards ██ ████████ ██████ ██████ ████ ███ ████ ██ ████████