Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The author concludes that biologists are wrong when they think that the fossil record provides direct evidence of the course of human evolution. In other words, the fossil record does not provide direct evidence of the course of human evolution. This conclusion is based on the subsidiary conclusion that fossils can’t be interpreted objectively. As an example supporting this subsidiary conclusion, the author points out that classifying a pelvis fossil as human based on its upright posture requires assuming that apes didn’t have an upright posture.
Identify Conclusion
The conclusion is that the biologists are wrong: “Biologists are mistaken in thinking that the fossil record provides direct evidence of the course of human evolution.”
A
No early apes had pelvises that would support an upright posture.
The author doesn’t necessarily agree with this. This is an assumption the author believes we make when classifying a pelvis as human based on its upright posture. But the author suggests this assumption might be wrong; it’s not an objective interpretation.
B
The claims made by evolutionary theorists cannot be objectively tested.
The author never stated this. Although we can infer the author would agree with this statement, he never actually stated this.
C
The fossil remains of some early hominids are difficult to distinguish from those of apes.
The author never stated this. The author never comments on the difficulty of distinguishing early hominid fossils from ape fossils. Although the author indicates that distinguishing between the two involves subjective interpretation, that’s not a comment on difficulty.
D
The fossil record does not directly reveal the course of human evolution.
This is a paraphrase of the claim that biologists are mistaken in thinking that the fossil record provides direct evidence of the course of human revolution.
E
Paleontologists’ classifications of fossils are always influenced by the theories that these scientists are testing.
This is part of the author’s support. Because paleontologists’ interpretations reflect the models they want to test, the author concludes that the fossil record does not provide direct evidence of the course of human evolution.
Cora: It is natural for humans to use technology to effect changes on the environment—humans have used technology in that way for many thousands of years. Therefore, your criticism is misguided.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
Cora concludes that Max is misguided for claiming “humans must return to a natural way of living” in light of the environmental damage caused by technology. Why does Cora conclude Max is misguided? Because humans have historically utilized technology to change their environments, so we can consider humans’ use of technology to be “natural.”
Identify Argument Part
The claim disputes an assumption in Max’s argument that humans’ use of technology is unnatural.
A
It is used to suggest that the alleged cause of terrible changes to the environment cannot be correctly described as unnatural.
Contrary to Max’s argument, Cora does claim that humans’ use of technology could be considered “natural.”
B
It is used to suggest that humans have benefited from many of the changes that they have wrought on the environment.
It is unclear whether Cora thinks that humans have benefited from changes to the environment. She is concluding, rather, that using technology to cause these changes could be considered “natural.”
C
It is used to suggest that Max’s conclusion that technology has wrought terrible changes on the environment has not been supported.
It is unclear whether Cora thinks that humans’ use of technology have caused terrible changes to the environment. She is concluding, rather, that using technology to cause these changes could be considered “natural.”
D
It is used to suggest that the conveniences of modern life will make it difficult for humans to return to a natural way of living.
Cora is not concluding that humans’ use of technology will make it difficult to return to a natural way of living. She is concluding, rather, that the use of technology itself could be considered “natural.”
E
It is used to suggest that it is a mistake to take the environmental changes caused by technology to be a moral issue.
Cora does not conclude that environmental changes caused by technology are not a moral issue. She is concluding, rather, that the use of technology by humans could be considered “natural.”