Summary
Male Trinidadian guppies with large spots are more attractive to females than males with small spots, who have fewer chances to mate. However, small-spotted guppies are better at avoiding predators, so in areas with many predators, only the small-spotted ones survive to maturity.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
A trait that helps an organism in one situation (such as mating) might harm it in a different situation.
Some seemingly advantageous traits may ultimately have negative consequences in certain environments.
Some seemingly advantageous traits may ultimately have negative consequences in certain environments.
A
A trait that helps attract mates is sometimes more dangerous to one sex than to another.
Unsupported. The stimulus discusses the effects of spot size among male guppies, but does not discuss spot size among female guppies. So we do not know whether this trait is more dangerous to one sex than to another.
B
Those organisms that are most attractive to the opposite sex have the greatest number of offspring.
Unsupported. Large-spotted guppies are more attractive to females and thus have more frequent mating opportunities, but they are less likely to live to maturity in waters with many predators. We do not know whether they have the greatest number of offspring.
C
Those organisms that survive the longest have the greatest number of offspring.
Unsupported. Small-spotted guppies are more likely to live to maturity in waters with many predators, but they are also less attractive to females and thus have less frequent mating opportunities. We do not know which kind of guppy has the greatest number of offspring.
D
Whether a trait is harmful to the organisms of a species can depend on which sex possesses it.
Unsupported. Like answer choice A, the stimulus does not discuss spot size among female guppies. So we do not know whether this trait is more harmful to one sex than to another.
E
A trait that is helpful to procreation can also hinder it in certain environments.
Strongly supported. The stimulus closely conforms to this generalization because it shows that large spots among guppies are helpful in mating but harmful in waters with many predators.
Mytheco executive: But many of the technical writers have worked for Mytheco longer than have many of the programmers. Since salary and benefits at Mytheco are directly tied to seniority, the 20 percent pay difference you mention is perfectly acceptable.
Summarize Argument
The executive concludes that the pay difference between programmers and technical writers at Mytheco is acceptable. This is because pay is tied to seniority, and many technical writers have worked at Mytheco longer than many programmers.
Notable Assumptions
The executive assumes that “many” technical writers having greater seniority than “many” programmers means that the average technical writer has greater seniority than the average programmer.
A
whether any of the technical writers at Mytheco once worked as programmers at the company
Irrelevant. We don’t care if some programmers became technical writers. We care if the pay difference is in fact tied to seniority.
B
how the average seniority of programmers compares with the average seniority of technical writers
If the average technical writer has seniority resulting in 20% more pay than the average programmer, the executive’s argument is strengthened. If the average technical writer has seniority resulting in less than 20% more pay, something else must explain the pay difference.
C
whether the sorts of benefits an employee of Mytheco receives are tied to the salary of that employee
We don’t care about the sorts of benefits. We care about pay difference, which we have no reason to believe is tied to the sorts of benefits employees receive.
D
whether the Mytheco executive was at one time a technical writer employed by Mytheco
How would this affect the executive’s argument? This doesn’t point to any meaningful difference or similarity between technical writers and programmers, which is what we need to evaluate the executive’s argument.
E
how the Mytheco executive’s salary compares with that of the programmers
We’re not comparing between executives and programmers. We’re comparing between programmers and technical writers.
Summary
There are many advantages that allow cable TV stations to attract more advertisers than broadcast networks. They can target specific audiences with 24-hour news, sports, or movies, while broadcast networks need to provide a mix of programs. They can also charge lower advertising rates since they receive money from subscriber fees. Also, many cable channels have expanded globally with international programming.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Broadcast networks aren’t subsidized by viewers through subscriber fees.
Some advertisers prefer to run their ads on stations with viewers who watch 24-hour news, sports, or movies.
Some advertisers prefer to run their ads on a station with lower advertising rates.
Some advertisers prefer to run their ads on a station that has expanded worldwide.
Note: We’re seeking the answer choice that is not supported.
Some advertisers prefer to run their ads on stations with viewers who watch 24-hour news, sports, or movies.
Some advertisers prefer to run their ads on a station with lower advertising rates.
Some advertisers prefer to run their ads on a station that has expanded worldwide.
Note: We’re seeking the answer choice that is not supported.
A
Some broadcast networks can be viewed in several countries.
Unsupported. The stimulus tells us that many cable stations have expanded worldwide and that this is an advantage that they have over broadcast networks. It does not discuss whether any broadcast networks can be viewed in several countries.
B
Broadcast networks do not rely on subscriber fees from viewers.
Strongly supported. Cable stations receive money from subscriber fees and this is an advantage that they have over broadcast networks. We can conclude then that broadcast networks do not rely on subscriber fees from viewers.
C
Low costs are often an important factor for advertisers in selecting a station or network on which to run a TV ad.
Strongly supported. Cable stations can attract many more advertisers than broadcast networks in part because they can charge lower advertising rates. We can thus conclude that advertising rates are important to advertisers who are deciding which network to run an ad on.
D
Some advertisers prefer to have the opportunity to address a worldwide audience.
Strongly supported. We are told that worldwide expansion is an one advantage that allows cable stations to attract more advertisers than broadcast networks. Thus, we can conclude that some advertisers prefer to have the opportunity to address a worldwide audience.
E
The audiences that some advertisers prefer to target watch 24-hour news stations.
Strongly supported. Cable stations can target audiences with 24-hour news, while broadcast networks cannot. This is advantageous to cable stations in attracting advertisers. Thus, some advertisers must prefer to target audiences that watch 24-hour news stations.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author hypothesizes that air pollution most likely eradicated the plant diseases black spot and tar spot. This is based on the observation that those two diseases disappeared in industrial English cities during the Industrial Revolution—places where there was high air pollution.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the observed correlation between air pollution in English cities and the disappearance of the two plant diseases is due to the former causing the latter. This means that the author also assumes there was no alternative cause of the diseases’ disappearance.
A
Scientists theorize that some plants can develop a resistance to air pollution.
Like (C), this is irrelevant because we don’t care about plants’ reaction to pollution, only two specific plant diseases.
B
Certain measures help prevent infection by black spot and tar spot, but once infection occurs, it is very difficult to eliminate.
This is too vague to be useful, because it doesn’t tell us why these diseases are difficult to eliminate or what might succeed in eliminating them.
C
For many plant species, scientists have not determined the effects of air pollution.
Like (A), this is irrelevant because the author’s hypothesis is about plant diseases, not plants themselves. How plants are affected by air pollution is totally outside the argument’s domain.
D
Black spot and tar spot returned when the air in the cities became less polluted.
This strengthens the author’s argument by reinforcing the relationship between air pollution and the two plant diseases. If the diseases come back when pollution decreases, that backs up the hypothesis of a causal relationship.
E
Black spot and tar spot were the only plant diseases that disappeared in any English cities during the Industrial Revolution.
This is irrelevant, because we’re only concerned with these two diseases, and this tell us nothing new about them. We simply don’t care about what happened to other plant diseases.
Many scholars are puzzled about who created the seventeenth-century abridgment of Shakespeare’s Hamlet contained in the First Quarto. Two facts about the work shed light on this question. First, the person who undertook the abridgment clearly did not possess a copy of Hamlet. Second, the abridgment contains a very accurate rendering of the speeches of one of the characters, but a slipshod handling of all the other parts.
Summary
Some scholars are questioning who created the seventeenth-century abridgment of Hamlet. The person who undertook the abridgment did not possess a copy of Hamlet. The abridgment accurately renders the speeches of only one of the characters, and a poor rendering of all other parts.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
The abridgment was likely produced by an actor that played a single character’s role in Hamlet.
A
The abridgment was prepared by Shakespeare.
The facts we’re given about the abridgment do not support the idea that it was produced by Shakespeare.
B
The abridgment was created to make Hamlet easier to produce on stage.
We don’t know why the abridgment was created. The question the scholars are attempting to answer is who created the abridgment.
C
The abridgment was produced by an actor who had played a role in Hamlet.
If the facts about the abridgment are true, it fits that the abridgment was produced by an actor. An actor is likely to both not have a full copy of the play and only accurate memory of one of the character’s roles.
D
The abridgement was prepared by a spectator of a performance of Hamlet.
A spectator is unlikely to have produced an accurate rendering of one of the character’s speeches.
E
The abridgment was produced by an actor who was trying to improve the play.
Hamlet would not be improved by having an accurate rendering of one of the character’s roles and a poor rendering of all of the other character’s roles.
Musicologist: Many critics complain of the disproportion between text and music in Handel’s da capo arias. These texts are generally quite short and often repeated well beyond what is needed for literal understanding. Yet such criticism is refuted by noting that repetition serves a vital function: it frees the audience to focus on the music itself, which can speak to audiences whatever their language.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The musicologist argues that critics’ disapproval of the imbalance between the short, repetitive texts and the music in Handel's da capo arias can be refuted. This is because the critics overlook the important role of repetition. Repetition allows the audience to concentrate on the music, which can communicate universally, regardless of language.
Identify Conclusion
The conclusion is the musicologist’s claim that the critics’ criticism of the imbalance between the short, repetitive texts and the music in Handel’s da capo arias can be refuted: “such criticism is refuted”.
A
Handel’s da capo arias contain a disproportionate amount of music.
This is context. It provides background on a common criticism of Handel’s da capo arias.
B
Handel’s da capo arias are superior to most in their accessibility to diverse audiences.
The musicologist does not make this claim. While the nature of the repetition allows it to speak to audiences regardless of language, the musicologist does not compare this ability to other music.
C
At least one frequent criticism of Handel’s da capo arias is undeserved.
This is the main point of the musicologist’s reasoning, which is that while many critics complain of the imbalance between the text and music in Handel’s da capo arias, this criticism can be refuted. In other words, it is undeserved.
D
At least some of Handel’s da capo arias contain unnecessary repetitions.
The musicologist does not claim the repetitions are unnecessary. The musicologist instead claims the repetitions serve a vital function.
E
Most criticism of Handel’s da capo arias is unwarranted.
This is not the musicologist’s conclusion. The conclusion is that one specific criticism of Handel’s da capo arias can be refuted, not that most criticisms can be.
Summary
The very large interior design company Baxe dominates the corporate design market. Baxe has never won an award for corporate design, but some small companies have won awards for corporate design. However, corporate decision-makers only want to work with companies which they think are unlikely to go bankrupt, and they think that only very large companies are unlikely to go bankrupt.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
It is strongly supported that corporate managers only solicit designs from very large companies. Also, at least some corporations probably receive a lower quality of interior design from Baxe than they could from an award-winning smaller company. Also, the quality of interior design is not the primary factor in who controls the corporate design market. Finally, Baxe’s near monopoly does not depend on producing the best designs.
A
There are other very large design companies besides Baxe, but they produce designs that are inferior to Baxe’s.
This is not supported. The stimulus says Baxe is “one of the largest” design companies, which implies that there are other very large design companies, but we know nothing about the quality of their designs.
B
Baxe does not have a near monopoly in the market of any category of interior design other than corporate interiors.
This is not supported. Corporate interior design is the only category the stimulus discusses, so we just don’t know how Baxe’s market share compares in other categories.
C
For the most part, designs that are produced by small companies are superior to the designs produced by Baxe.
This is not supported. We can infer that at least some small companies probably produce at least some designs better than those produced by Baxe, but we don’t know how many. This means we have no idea if it’s “most” or only a few.
D
At least some of the corporate managers who solicit design proposals are unaware that there are designs that are much better than those produced by Baxe.
This is not supported. All we know about corporate managers is that they only work with very large companies. It’s entirely possible that they know of better designs out there, but just care more about a company’s stability.
E
The existence of interior designs that are superior to those produced by Baxe does not currently threaten its near monopoly in the corporate market.
This is strongly supported. Because smaller companies have won awards and Baxe hasn’t, we can infer that there are some designs better than those produced by Baxe. We also know that corporate managers don’t work with smaller companies, thus leaving Baxe’s near monopoly safe.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that an asteroid strike wasn’t responsible for most dinosaurs going extinct. This is because a major asteroid strike doesn’t have worldwide consequences, and even bigger asteroids than the one that supposedly caused the dinosaurs to go extinct have been accompanied by no known extinctions whatsoever.
Notable Assumptions
In order for the asteroid strike not to have caused most dinosaur extinctions, the author must believe that most dinosaurs weren’t located in the region that the asteroid struck. The author must also believe that climactic conditions at the time—i.e. drought—didn’t intensify the strike’s effects, perhaps by releasing significantly more dust than usual into the Earth’s atmosphere and blocking out the sun.
A
The vast majority of dinosaur species are known to have gone extinct well before the time of the asteroid impact that produced the Chicxulub crater.
The author likely agrees. The dinosaurs in question are just the “last dinosaur species.”
B
The size of a crater caused by an asteroid striking Earth generally depends on both the size of that asteroid and the force of its impact.
We don’t really care about the crater. We already know asteroids leaving larger craters caused no known extinctions.
C
Fossils have been discovered of a number of dinosaurs that clearly died as a result of the asteroid impact that produced the Chicxulub crater.
The author agrees that some dinosaurs died, but qualifies that the effects of the asteroid were regional. We need to weaken the claim that the asteroid couldn’t have caused widespread dinosaur extinctions.
D
There is no evidence that any other asteroid of equal size struck Earth at the same time as the asteroid that produced the Chicxulub crater.
The author never claimed there were two asteroids.
E
During the period immediately before the asteroid that produced the Chicxulub crater struck, most of the world’s dinosaurs lived in or near the region of the asteroid’s impending impact.
While the asteroid only had a regional effect, most dinosaurs lived in that region. Thus, the asteroid caused most dinosaur extinctions.