The eye of the mantis shrimp is likely the most complex visual organ in all of the animal kingdom. Each of its parts must be present and function with the other parts in order for its vision to render polarized light and multispectral images. Therefore, an ancestor of the mantis shrimp with only a few of those parts would have gained no survival advantage.
Come on!
Do you see how terrible this argument is? It's presuming that say, a simple eye that could, say, only perceive vague shapes in low resolution in black and white, is useless. How obviously, flagrantly, false.
But, we have to find a necessary assumption for this terrible argument.
To keep this argument alive, we must establish that for parts of the mantis shrimp eye to have aided survival, it must have helped it to render polarized light and multispectral images.
Imagine if we negated this assumption. So, parts of the mantis shrimp eye that could not render polarized light and multispectral images (in other words, the "simple eye" that could only make out vague shapes) could still aid survival. Well, yeah, now the terribleness of the argument comes to light.
Summary
Most opera singers who take on demanding roles when young lose their voices early. Although some people think this is because voices typically aren’t powerful enough for demanding roles when singers are young, the actual reason these singers lose their voices early is that young singers don’t have the training they need to avoid straining vocal cords.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Singing a demanding role when young can cause vocal straining.
Lack of training, rather than lack of power, causes most singers who take on demanding roles when young to lose their voices early.
Improved training of young singers can help them keep their voices longer.
Lack of training, rather than lack of power, causes most singers who take on demanding roles when young to lose their voices early.
Improved training of young singers can help them keep their voices longer.
A
Young opera singers without great vocal power are unlikely to ruin their voices by singing demanding roles.
Unsupported. Although singers with great vocal power are the most likely to ruin their voices, that doesn’t imply singers without great vocal power are unlikely to ruin their voices. The stimulus indicates power or the lack of it is not the problem. Lack of training is.
B
Some young opera singers ruin their voices while singing demanding roles because their vocal cords have not yet matured.
Antisupported. This describes a perspective the author rebuts. The author tells us that lack of matured voices is not the cause of losing voices early. Rather, lack of training is the cause.
C
Only opera singers with many years of technical training should try to sing demanding roles.
Unsupported. There’s no suggestion that the necessary training requires many years. Perhaps there are some young people who do have the necessary training. It’s OK for those singers to take on demanding roles.
D
Only mature opera singers can sing demanding roles without undue strain on their vocal cords.
Unsupported. The issue is not the maturity of the voice. The issue is proper training to avoid straining one’s voice. So, young singers with proper training may still be able to sing demanding roles without undue strain.
E
Most young opera singers who sing demanding roles strain their vocal cords.
Strongly supported. We know most young opera singers who sing demanding roles lose their voices early. The author tells us this is because these singers lack the training required to avoid straining their voices.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The ethicist refutes the idea that those who are not inclined to do wrong don’t deserve to be praised for doing what is right. Why is that idea flawed? People who succeed in avoiding all desires to do what is wrong are just as virtuous as those who struggle to resist one desire at a time.
Identify Argument Part
This is a commonly held belief that the author says is not enough to support the claim being refuted. Although we tend to think people are especially virtuous for successfully resisting a desire, they are no more virtuous those who get rid of all their immoral desires. Therefore, they are not more deserving of praise.
A
It is a claim for which the argument attempts to provide justification.
The author says this claim is insufficient, and justifies why it is insufficient.
B
It makes an observation that, according to the argument, is insufficient to justify the claim that the argument concludes is false.
This is accurate. This part of the argument would support the claim being refuted, but the author shows why this commonly held belief isn’t enough to say that group deserves more praise.
C
It is a claim, acceptance of which, the argument contends, is a primary obstacle to some people’s having an adequate conception of virtue.
Adequate conceptions of virtue are not at issue in the argument. Additionally, the acceptance of this claim is not an obstacle as long as those who extinguish all desires are considered equally virtuous.
D
It is, according to the argument, a commonly held opinion that is nevertheless false.
The ethicist does not say that this assertion is false. It can be true that those individuals are especially virtuous, perhaps when compared to those who don’t resist desire. They just are no more virtuous than those who extinguish all desire.
E
It reports an observation that, according to the argument, serves as evidence for the truth of its conclusion.
This does not support the conclusion. It almost supports the claim that is being refuted, but the ethicist shows why it is insufficient.