Self-study
Passage A.
P1
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Intro topic ·
Function of language
One purpose is to influence others' behavior.
P2
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Contrast ·
Animal vocalizations vs. human language
Animal communication is inadvertent, unlike human language. Animals (except chimps) can't attribute mental states to other animals.
Example ·
Communication by one frog
No evidence that the frog attributes knowledge or desire to other frogs.
Additional contrast ·
Animal vocalizations vs. human language
Primates (besides humans) don't communicate in response to thinking that another primate needs info.
Example ·
Macaques and chimps
No evidence they are more likely to communicate about things when their fellow primates are clearly unaware of those things.
Main point ·
Many animal vocalizations aren't as intentional as they seem
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P3
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Scientists' perspective ·
Animal communication isn't intentional, whereas human language is
This is a recap of Passage A's perspective.
P4
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Scientists' perspective ·
Animals can't lie
Lying requires intention to deceive, and it's widely thought that animals don't have conscious intention.
Example ·
Bee's "waggle-dance"
Bees communicate direction of food sources, but one philosopher thinks this is just a reflex; bees don't intend to communicate anything.
P5
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Author's critique ·
Assumption that animals can't intend things might be wrong
Passage Style
16.
The author of passage B █████ ██ ████ ██████ ██ █████ ████ █████ ███ ██ ███ █████████ ██████████ █████████ ███████████ ███ █████████ ██ ███ ████████ ███████████ ██ ███████ ██
a
They fail to █████████ ████ ██████ █████ ███████████ ███████ ███ █████ ████ ██ █████ ██████████ ██████ ███████
Not supported, because Author B doesn’t make any claims related to whether humans sometimes lack mental states when communicating. Although Author B believes animal communication and human communication might be more similar than others might think, this isn’t because humans sometimes lack mental states when communicating. Rather, Author B suggests that animals might sometimes possess mental states when communicating.
b
Most of them ████ ███ ███████████ ██████ ██ ██████ ███ ████████ ████████████ ████████ ██████████
Not supported, because Author B doesn’t comment about the credentials of researchers.
c
They ignore well-known ████████ ████ ███████ ██ ██ ████ ████████ ██████████
Not supported, because Author B doesn’t mention any well-known evidence that animals in fact practice deception. Although Author B thinks researchers are too hasty in ruling out the potential for deception, this doesn’t imply that Author B thinks there exists actual evidence of deception. (We don’t know that the evidence mentioned in the last paragraph involves evidence that animals practice deception).
d
They make assumptions █████ ███████ ████ ██████ ██ ██████████ ████████████
This is the best answer. The author believes the researchers in Passage A
e
They falsely believe ████ ███ █████████████ ███████ ███ ██ █████████ ██ █████ ██ █████ ████████████ █████████
Not supported, because Author B doesn’t make any claims about “all” communication systems. So we don’t know that Author B would think the researchers in Passage A have a belief about “all” communication systems (meaning, both animal and human communication).