Self-study
Passage A.
P1
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Intro topic ·
Function of language
One purpose is to influence others' behavior.
P2
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Contrast ·
Animal vocalizations vs. human language
Animal communication is inadvertent, unlike human language. Animals (except chimps) can't attribute mental states to other animals.
Example ·
Communication by one frog
No evidence that the frog attributes knowledge or desire to other frogs.
Additional contrast ·
Animal vocalizations vs. human language
Primates (besides humans) don't communicate in response to thinking that another primate needs info.
Example ·
Macaques and chimps
No evidence they are more likely to communicate about things when their fellow primates are clearly unaware of those things.
Main point ·
Many animal vocalizations aren't as intentional as they seem
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P3
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Scientists' perspective ·
Animal communication isn't intentional, whereas human language is
This is a recap of Passage A's perspective.
P4
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Scientists' perspective ·
Animals can't lie
Lying requires intention to deceive, and it's widely thought that animals don't have conscious intention.
Example ·
Bee's "waggle-dance"
Bees communicate direction of food sources, but one philosopher thinks this is just a reflex; bees don't intend to communicate anything.
P5
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Author's critique ·
Assumption that animals can't intend things might be wrong
Passage Style
18.
The authors would be most ██████ ██ ████████ ████
Question Type
Author’s perspective
Implied
We’re looking for a point of disagreement. Author A thinks animal communication doesn’t involve conscious intention. Author B thinks that animal communication might involve conscious intention, and that we shouldn’t rule out this possibility.
a
the extent to █████ █████████████ █████ ██████ ████████ ███ ███████ ██ ████████ ███ ██████ ██████ ██ ██████
This isn’t a point of disagreement, because both passages acknowledge that human communication can involve perception of mental states of others.
b
the importance of ███████████ ██ ████ ██████ ██████ █████████████ ███████ ██████ ████ █████ ████████
Not a point of disagreement, because we don’t get any evidence that one author views the issue as less “important” than the other author.
c
whether human language ███ ██████ █████████████ ██████ ████ ███ ███████ █████████████ ██ ██████ ██ █ ██████ ██ ██████
Supported as a point of disagreement. Author A believes human and animal communication differ qualitatively in that humans communicate with intention and purpose, while
d
whether chimpanzees' vocalizations ███████ ████ ████ ███ ███████ ███ ████████ ██ █████████ ██████ ██████ ██ ██████
Not supported as a point of disagreement, because Author A
e
whether animals' vocalizations ███████ ██ █████ ███ ████████ ██ █████ ███████ ██ █ ███ ████ ████████ ███ ████████
Not supported as a point of disagreement, because Author B doesn’t comment on the evolution of animal vocalizations.