Summarize Argument
The author claims that for a society to be stable, its citizens must have stable goals. This is a conditional claim, which is supported by chaining together two conditional premises. One premise is that a stable society necessitates laws that increase the happiness of its citizens. The other is that creating laws which increase citizens’ happiness requires most people to have “a predictable and enduring set of aspirations”, i.e. stable goals.
P1. stable society → laws increase happiness
P2. laws increase happiness → stable goals
Therefore, stable society → stable goals
P1. stable society → laws increase happiness
P2. laws increase happiness → stable goals
Therefore, stable society → stable goals
Identify Argument Part
The claim that “a society is stable only if its laws tend to increase the happiness of its citizens” is one of the premises used to establish the conclusion.
A
It is the conclusion of the argument.
The claim about stability and laws that increase happiness is a premise used to reach the conclusion. It’s not supported by anything else, so can’t be a conclusion.
B
It helps to support the conclusion of the argument.
This correctly identifies that the claim about stability and laws that increase happiness is one of the author’s premises. It supports the conclusion, and has no other role in the argument.
C
It is a claim that must be refuted if the conclusion is to be established.
The argument doesn’t contain any claims that need to be refuted. The author takes both premises for granted, and they validly yield the conclusion. It’s that simple, no refutation involved.
D
It is a consequence of the argument.
The claim about stability and laws that increase happiness that increase happiness can’t be a consequence of anything because nothing else leads to it. It’s just stated without any support.
E
It is used to illustrate the general principle that the argument presupposes.
The claim about stability and laws that increase happiness doesn’t illustrate anything. It combines with another premise to lead to the conclusion, but not by providing an example.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author hypothesizes that Han purple was probably discovered by accident during the production of glass. This is based on the fact that the same chemical ingredients are used for Han purple and a common type of white glass that was made during the period Han purple was made. In addition, both Han purple and this white glass were made using processes that involved high heat and mixing in lead.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes there’s no more likely explanation for the origin of Han purple besides accidental discovery during the production of white glass.
A
Chemical analysis shows that most of the known fragments of both Han purple and the white glass were produced within a small geographical radius.
This strengthens by establishing at least that Han purple and white glass were produced near each other. If this were not true, the author’s hypothesis wouldn’t make sense. (A) isn’t a powerful strengthener, but it most strengthens compared to the other answers.
B
Han purple was used for luxury and ceremonial items, whereas the white glass was used to make certain household items.
The purposes of Han purple and white glass doesn’t reveal anything about how Han purple was discovered.
C
The technique used for producing Han purple was known to very few people during the Qin and Han dynasties.
This limits the number of people who knew how to make Han purple. But does this help show that Han purple was discovered during the production of white glass? We have no reason to think so.
D
The ingredients used in producing both Han purple and the white glass were easily obtainable during the Qin and Han dynasties.
How easy the ingredients were to obtain doesn’t shed any light on whether Han purple was discovered during the production of white glass.
E
The white glass is found in more surviving artifacts from the Qin and Han dynasties than Han purple is.
(E) suggests white glass might have been more widely used or more durable. But that doesn’t tell us anything about whether Han purple was discovered during the production of white glass.