Summarize Argument
The author concludes that soot itself doesn’t cause a certain ailment. This is because cities with lots of soot in the air usally also have lots of other pollutants in the air.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the ailment in question isn’t specifically linked to soot and not linked to other pollutants. If this were the case, then soot could likely be identified as a cause of the ailment. The author also assumes that the ailment isn’t prevalent in places where there’s soot in the air but no other pollutants. The author claims soot is usually accompanied by other pollutants, which means there are instances where this isn’t the case.
A
In cities where there are high concentrations of many air pollutants but little if any soot in the air, the frequency of the ailment is just as high, on average, as it is in cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air.
This supports the author’s argument. Other pollutants are likely causing the ailment.
B
If the ailment rarely occurs except in cities in which there are large amounts of soot in the air, then the soot is probably the cause of the ailment.
Does this ever happen? We don’t know.
C
In each of the cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air but little other air pollution, the frequency of the ailment is at least as high as it is anywhere else.
When soot and no other pollutants are in the air, the ailment is as prevalent as ever. Thus, soot seems likely to be the cause of the ailment.
D
If high concentrations of many different pollutants in a city’s air are correlated with a high frequency of the ailment among that city’s population, then it is possible that two or more of those pollutants each causally contributes to the ailment.
This seems to support the author’s argument. Several of the pollutants together could’ve cause the ailment, rather than soot alone.
E
In cities in which there are high concentrations of many air pollutants, there are generally also high concentrations of other forms of pollution that are very likely to contribute causally to the ailment.
This supports the author’s argument. Other forms of pollution are contributing to the ailment rather than soot alone.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that, for the purpose of protecting others, governments are justified in outlawing behavior that puts one’s own health at risk. This is based on the fact that people who cause harm to themselves can also impose emotional and financial costs on others with whom they have important ties.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that preventing harm to others is a purpose that justifies restricting behavior that puts one’s own health at risk. The author overlooks the possibility that, despite the harm that one’s own self-harmful behavior might cause to others, there are reasons governments would not be justified in restricting this behavior.
A
Endangering the social ties that one has to other people is itself a harm to oneself.
This simply describes another potential harm that might result from behavior that harms oneself, if such behavior can threaten one’s social ties. This doesn’t suggest governments might not be justified in restricting self-harmful behavior.
B
People who have important ties to others have a personal obligation not to put their own health at risk.
This relates to one’s own personal obligations. But the argument is about what the government is allowed to do.
C
Governments are not justified in limiting an individual’s behavior unless that behavior imposes emotional or financial costs on others.
This isn’t inconsistent with the author’s reasoning. Justification may be limited to those cases in which one’s behavior imposes costs on others. The stimulus describes one of those cases.
D
Preventing harm to others is not by itself a sufficient justification for laws that limit personal freedom.
This shows that the potential harm posed to others cannot, by itself, justify restrictions on one’s behavior.
E
People’s obligation to avoid harming others outweighs their obligation to avoid harming themselves.
This concerns people’s own obligations. But the argument is about what the government is justified in doing.
Summary
The government will not pay for patients to take Antinfia until the manufacturer provides information about the drug’s cost-effectiveness. This information can only be obtained by performing massive clinical trials. The trials cannot be performed until the drug is in widespread circulation, which will happen only if the government pays for Antinfia.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Government pays → provide detailed info → massive clinical trails → widespread circulation → government pays
This chain is circular, and the stimulus says the government is not paying. You can run the contrapositive back and draw any valid inference along the chain. (no widespread circulation, no clinical trials, no detailed info)
This chain is circular, and the stimulus says the government is not paying. You can run the contrapositive back and draw any valid inference along the chain. (no widespread circulation, no clinical trials, no detailed info)
A
The government health service never pays for any medicine unless that medicine has been shown to be cost-effective.
This is too broad to support. The stimulus is purely focused on Antinfia, not “any medicine”
B
Antinfia will never be in widespread circulation.
The stimulus says that the drug will be in wide circulation only if the government pays. The government is refusing to pay. Thus, it will never be in wide circulation.
C
If the government health service does not pay for Antinfia, then many patients will pay for Antinfia themselves.
The stimulus does not give any information about whether patients will pay out of pocket or not. You need to make some assumptions to make this work
D
The government health service should pay for patients to take Antinfia.
The stimulus does not say whether the government should/should not pay for Antinfia. It only explains what barriers the drug is facing to becoming widely available.
E
Antinfia is not cost-effective.
The stimulus does not say whether Antinfia is/is not cost-effective. The stimulus only notes that the drug company cannot yet provide information about its cost-effectiveness.
Summary
A hummingbird’s egg accounts for 15 percent of an adult hummingbird’s weight. An adult goose is much larger than a hummingbird, but a goose’s egg accounts for only 4 percent of an adult goose’s weight. An adult ostrich is much larger than a goose, but ostrich eggs only account for 1.6 percent of an adult ostrich’s weight.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
The larger a bird species is, the smaller the ratio is between egg weight and the body weight of an adult bird.
A
The eggs of different bird species vary widely in their ratio of volume to weight.
This answer is unsupported. In the stimulus, we are comparing egg weight and volume to the weight and volume of an adult bird. This answer is comparing egg weight and volume of one species compared to the egg weight and volume of another.
B
The smaller and lighter the average adult members of a bird species are, the larger and heavier the eggs of that species are.
This answer is unsupported. From the stimulus, we only know that the ratio between the weight and volume of an egg increases the smaller the adult bird is. This doesn’t mean that the eggs are larger, just that they account for a bigger proportion of an adult’s weight.
C
The ratio of egg weight of a species to body weight of an adult member of that species is smaller for larger birds than for smaller ones.
This answer is strongly supported. This answer accurately captures the comparative difference of proportion between egg weight and volume of different bird species.
D
The size of birds’ eggs varies greatly from species to species but has little effect on the volume and weight of the adult bird.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know from the stimulus anything about the size of any adult bird’s eggs. Rather, we only know something about the proportion of egg weight and volume compared to an adult bird.
E
Bird species vary more in egg size than they do in average body size and weight.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know from the stimulus whether bird species vary in egg size at all. We only know that in different species of birds, egg weight and volume accounts for a different proportion of an adult bird’s weight.